The Roots and Origins of Islamic Terrorism Essay Example for Free

The Roots and Origins of Islamic Terrorism Essay Since the 1970s terrorism against the US has been growing and on September 11th it became apparent that terrorism will be a major problem the US will face in the years ahead. The question this essay seeks to explore is: what is terrorism and what are some the causes of this anti-US terrorism? In order to find the causes of anti-US terrorism, this essay will research various academic works in an effort to find some explanations of what causes anti-US terrorism. I will examine a couple different hypothesis that try to explain the causes of terrorism, but my research I plan to argue that anti-US terrorism is rooted in political and social movements by angry Islamic fundamentalists who believe using non-conventional tactics are the most rational way to fight the US and the western powers. Terrorist groups, such as Al-Qaeda, do not see diplomacy with the US as an option to voice their demands because they see the US as a superpower that is unwilling to listen to their demands and also because most of the Arab governments are friends with the US. Because diplomacy is not an available option and there is an inability to formally fight the west militarily, terrorists groups have chosen to use non-traditional tactics to fight the west. Research into this issue is very important for political research because terrorism has become a major security issue for the US and other countries around the world. Also, research into the causes of terrorism is important because it is a tactic that non-state actors can and will be using the years ahead as a form of leverage against the US and the West. In my conclusion I will present some possible solutions how terrorism can hopefully be stopped in the future. Defining terrorism as one definite thing is not an easy task, but generally terrorism is considered to be non-conventional form of warfare that individuals or groups can use to fight for their agenda, whether it is a political, social, religious and/or economic cause. Terrorists use many non-conventional ways of fighting such as car bombs, keeping people hostage, and in some cases hijacking air planes. As a ‘weapon of the weak’, terrorism is deployed by groups to gain media attention and visibility as the first step in gaining ‘name recognition’ within the international community. (Nacos 1994). Through the publicity generated by their violence, terrorists seek to obtain the leverage, influence and power they otherwise lack to create political change on either a local or an international scale. The traditional laws of war do not apply  to terrorism, partly because terrorist groups do not abide to treaties on war, and also because terrorist groups use fear as their form of leverage, which is why it is okay for them to kill innocent people. In cases of groups such as Al-Qaeda killing innocent people is not considered a bad thing because to them there is a religious justification. Power has always played a crucial role in the international system and based on this principle we can believe that the struggle for power has a major influence on the decision of terrorist groups to commit acts of terrorism. (Sobeck Braithwaite 2005) In a study by David Sobek and Alex Braithwaite the two researchers hypothesize that as political, military, and diplomatic capabilities become concent rated into American and allied hands, the amount of terrorism directed against Americas interests will increase as a way to counter balance this power. Because terrorists are non-state actors they do not have access to conventional forms of fighting or the diplomatic channels that states use to resolve their disputes, they must use non-conventional forms of fighting. The choice to employ terrorist activities arises rationally from the environmental context within which these groups find themselves in, in that terrorism is the most cost-effective way for the terrorists to accomplish their goals. (Ajami 2001) The United States’ predominant position in the world affects the decision of terrorist groups to launch terrorist attacks against US interests internationally. As the United States becomes increasingly dominant, the amount of terrorism directed against it is likely to increase. Terrorism is seen by the terrorists as a counter-balancing mechanism. (Sobeck Braithwaite 2005) Increasing American dominance limits the ability of groups with revisionist views of the international system, such as that of the Palestinians, to be h eard, let alone changed. (Sobeck Braithwaite 2005) The options available for these groups to act are diplomacy, perhaps through a NGO or their home state if they are willing to listen, or terrorism, which is intended to create an instant response (Most Starr, 1989) From these choices, terrorist groups choose strategies that they see as rational that will maximize their expected outcome. (Sobeck Braithwaite 2005) This means that the decision to engage in terrorism relates directly to the expected efficacy of an action and the likely payoffs received if it is successful. For example the terrorist activities of 9/11 cost Al-Qaeda roughly 400,000  dollars and nineteen lives were lost in the process, but the outcome of causing thousands of deaths, several billion dollars of damage, and most importantly creating fear in the minds of millions of people world-wide was a very ‘cost-effective’ decision by Al-Qaeda to put world spotlight on their anti-US position. (Sobeck Braithwaite 2005) The desire to counter-balance the US and west and remove from the Middle East a long with belief that it possible has caused the creation of many terrorist groups since the 1970s. This anti-western feeling had been around for a long time, but the creation of Israel and the growing amount of western influence in the region really sparked terrorist movements in this time period. Groups such as Hezbollah, a Lebanese group that has been around since the 1980s, have realized that using non-conventional warfare, such as blowing up the US Embassy in Beirut, can be a way to fight and neutralize the conventional military superiority of a superpower. (Cannistraro and Giraldi 2007) This action seemed to be a victory for Hezbollah as US and French forces withdrew from the country after the bombing. This act of removing western countries using terrorism inspired other terrorist groups to try to fight Western influence in their home countries and to fight western countries in their homeland as see n by the attacks of 9/11 and the bombings in Madrid. It is a common misperception that terrorists are insane and not rational actors because they use tactics such as suicide, but this is not necessarily the case. Marc Sageman, a former CIA officer, studied the rationality of terrorists and found that the popular depictions of brainwashed or poor and uneducated terrorists are generally not true. He profiled 382 terrorists and his work reveals that terrorists are more likely to be normal, well-educated types with families and good professional-level jobs. (Sageman 2002) Most are middle or upper class and not poor, young, single, and/or deluded. (Sageman 2002) Only a small percentage had any religious education, and many, more than 70 percent, had some university education. (Sageman 2002) Sageman concluded that Al Qaeda and its associated groups are generally composed of men who are very well educated, well off, and stable. According to Vincent Cannistraro and Philip Giraldi terrorists act as they  do not because they are crazy but beca use they believe what they do will bring about change to the global political status quo. Terrorists see terrorism as a way to create power where there is none or to consolidate power where there is very little. (Hoffman 1998) For the global Salafist terrorists, the objective is to put an end to corrupt Arab regimes, replacing them with theocracies, and to bring and end to western influence from Muslim lands. For the regionally based groups such as Hamas, the purpose of terrorism is national liberation from occupying powers e.g. Israel. (Cannistraro and Giraldi 2007) It can also be argued that even though acts of terrorism are universally condemned, they stimulate media coverage of an issue and provide an opening for moderate organizations to ask the public to consider the legitimacy of what the terrorists are fighting for as a separate issue from the tactics the groups use i.e. it can be argued that the terrorism in Israel has increased awareness of poor conditions of the Palestinian people. (Adamson) Along with being a political movement, terrorism has now also become a sociological phenomenon in parts of the Muslim world and in the west. In parts of the Middle East terrorists groups begin to form when members of the society feel upset with their home government for working with the US or other reasons that make them feel outcast i.e. economic reasons, feeling less dignified than people of the west, etc. It usually takes a charismatic leader to take the frustration of the many outcast people and channel it into a movement. In the words of Eric Hoffer, it is usually â€Å"an externalizing hatemongering leader† who â€Å"manipulates the slime of discontented souls.† (Hoffer 1989) Terrorist group leaders, such as Osama Bin Laden, are considered to be a therapist for the group and they blame an external cause for their difficulties of the group and righteously justify aggression against the believed source i.e. the US. (Robins Post, 1997). Once members are recruited in to these groups, there is a clear fusing of individual identity and group identity, particularly among the more radical elements of each organization. This is true both for the Islamist terrorists of Hamas as well as Al Qaeda and the global Salafi jihad. (Post 2005) For members of these terrorist groups ‘success’ within the community is defined as fighting for ‘the cause,’ which can be thought of as political, social,  and religious growth of the groups beliefs. As young men adopt this view of success, their own self image becomes more intimately intertwined with the success of the organization. (Post 2005) With no other means to achieve status and ‘success,’ the organization’s success becomes central to individual identity and provides a â€Å"reason for living† for group members. (Post 2005) As an individual’s identity succumbs to the organization, there is no room for individuality, meaning no individual ideas, identity, and decision-making. At the same time self-perceived success becomes more and more linked to the organization This creates a cycle where group members have a direct need to increase the power and prestige of the group through increasingly dramatic and violent operations because this will increase their own perceived ‘success’ (Post 2005) This fusion with the group seems to provide the necessary justification for their actions and loss of responsibility to the individual. Guilt or remorse by the individual is not tolerated because the organization does not express it. This is intensified among Islamist groups who feel they have a moral obligation to the cause and a religiously sanctioned justification for their actions e.g. Jihad (Post 2005). In Europe and in the US terrorist groups have formed from a different social phenomenon. When Marc Sageman did his detailed study on 382 terrorists, he found some interesting information about the origins of many Al-Qaeda terrorists. Sageman found that the average al Qaeda–type terrorist has traveled, frequently studied in the West, and that many terrorists developed their radicalism while they were studying or working in the West. (Sageman 2002) He discovered that most terrorists entered into the jihadi cause from the bottom up, meaning that they volunteered and were not actively recruited. Sageman explains that these terrorists frequently drifted into radical mosques as an act of cultural assertion, often because they felt homesick or alienated from the dominant Western culture. Once there, they joined cliques or friendship groups of the like-minded people also searching for a new identity. (Sageman 2002) According to Sageman, â€Å"The groups are characterized by a sense of anomie, their social and political alienation eventually being attributed to the decadence, corruption, and immorality of the West.† The next step for these outcast individuals is to  join an organization that is doing something to combat and roll back the western values. Sageman concluded from his study that it is the â€Å"alienation arising from the misguided multiculturalism that treats Muslims like a group needing to be protected that creates its own sense of victimization.† (Sageman 2002) Another explanation that some might give to explain terrorism is that it is a psychological disorder that is caused by a pneumopathological consciousness that involves the construction of an imaginative â€Å"second reality† where terrorism has intended and magical effects. (Cooper 2005) This belief that terrorism is caused by a second reality says when individuals, who out of necessity exist within commonsensical or â€Å"first† reality attempt to live within the imaginative or fantasy-based second reality and characteristic frictions between the two arise. With respect to modern terrorism, the chief conflicts are between religious or spiritual realities and their symbolization and the realities of unfavorable living conditions in the Middle East relative to countries of the West. The tension between the first and second reality is brought to life by the perverse logic of this second reality that interprets murder as self-sacrifice according to this theory. (Cooper 200 5) No matter how pragmatically destructive these acts of political violence may be in commonsense terms, for the people existing imaginatively within a second reality, they â€Å"are sanitized by virtue of the fact that they are religiously symbolic. They are stripped of their horror by being invested with religious meaning.† (Juergensmeyer 1996) Of the different academic works I have looked into, this theory that terrorism is caused by a psychological disorder seems to be the least plausible. The problem with the theory is that it is not possible to test the psychological dysfunctions of the terrorists partly because of an internal belief in this theory that the terrorists are able to live in the ‘first reality.’ Also since other researchers such as Marc Sageman have done case studies that show that terrorists are rational and normal people, there is strong evidence that contradicts this theory. This theory does not take into account the strong evidence put forth by the other works I have  researched that convincingly explain how terrorism is a rational way for the terrorists to fight the west of social and political reasons. While it is true that some terrorists groups are fighting in the name of religion, most terrorists groups have used religion as a justification and cover up for doing violent acts that are politically and socially motivated. Overall, this belief that terrorism is caused by a pneumopathological consciousness does little in supporting my hypothesis. Some of the articles I read gave me support for my hypothesis that terrorism is caused by political and social forces. â€Å"The Long War† by Vincent Cannistraro and Philip Giraldi was one of the articles that supported my hypothesis. The general theme of the article was that social alienation from the West, revenge for previous blood debt, a desire to put an end to corrupt Arab regimes and replace them with theocracies along with bringing about a retreat of the West, particularly the United States, from Muslim lands is what causes terrorism. Also â€Å"Victim of Success† by David Sobeck and Alex Braithwaite supported my hypothesis because it explained terrorism as political maneuver by groups like Al Qaeda to counter balance the military and political superiority of the US. An article that supported my notion that terrorism also has social motivations was the case study of terrorists my Marc Sageman, which explain how social alienation by Muslims living in the west cau ses these groups to feel hatred toward the west and act on their feelings. With a better understanding of the political and social causes of terrorism better efforts should be made by US foreign policy makers to tackle these root causes. It will be difficult to stop Muslim extremists from feeling outcast from their home governments, but better efforts need to be made by people living in the west to understand Islam and the problems Muslims in the Middle East face. Also people in the west need to do a better job of helping Muslims living in the west to assimilate into western society so they do not feel social alienation. A lot of this social tension between Muslims and the west can possibly be fixed with better education of Islam in schools and less negative depictions of Muslims and the Middle East in the media. The political causes of terrorism will be a little bit more difficult to fix. It is not likely that the US will lessen its power, but the US could try to do more to change its policy that affects the millions of Muslims living in the Middle East. First, the US should stop this double-standard of promoting peace in Isreal, while at the same time giving full support militarily and economically to the Israeli government, which doing very little to help the Palestinians. Next, the US should try to stop supporting Arab governments which are very oppressive towards their people. Although it is unlikely, the US and US companies should try to reduce their presence in the Middle East because we are clearly not welcome and many of the people living in the area think we are exploiting them while also corrupting their way of life with our more liberal social values. Also what the US should do to help stop terrorism is to increase the legitimacy of using diplomacy in the region because doing so would make terrorism not the most rational option for these angry groups. The implications of US foreign policy in the Middle East are very important if we want to see terrorism come to an end. It is unfortunate that the Islamic fundamentalists had to resort to using terrorism to fight for their political and social causes, but if the US does more to understand their needs and frustrations of these peoples and also act on this information, then hopefully we will see an the end of this era of terrorism. References: Adamson, Fiona B. (2005). Globalization, Transnational Political Mobilization, and Networks of Violence. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, retrieved November 5, 2007, From Academic Search Premier database Ajami, F. (2001). The Uneasy Imperium: Pax Americana in the Middle East. How did this happen? Terrorism and the new war. Public Affairs Reports, Retrieved November 11, 2007, from Academic Search Premier database Cannistraro,Vincent; Giraldi,Philip.(2007). The Long War Mediterranean Q., (Duke University Press) Retrieved November 5, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Cooper, Barry. (2005). Terrorism and Globalization. Perspectives on Global Development and Technology. Retrieved November 5, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Hoffer, E. (1989). The true believer: Thoughts on the nature of mass movements. Harper and Rowe Perennial Library. Retrieved November 5, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Juergensmeyer, Mark (1996) The Worldwide Rise of Religious Nationalism. Journal of International Affairs. Retrieved November 5, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Most, B. and Starr, H. (1989). Inquiry, logic, and international politics. University of South Carolina Press. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Nacos, B. (1994). Terrorism and the Media: From the Iran Hostage Crisis to the Oklahoma City Bombing. Columbia University Press. Retrieved November 5, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Post,Jerrold M. (2005). When Hatred Is Bred in the Bone: Psycho-Cultural Foundations of Contemporary Terrorism. Polit.Psychol. Retrieved November 5, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Robins, R Post, J (1997). Political paranoia: The psychopolitics of hatred. New Haven: Yale University Press. Retrieved November 11, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Sageman, Marc. (2002). Understanding Terror Networks. University of Pennsylvania Press. Retrieved November 5, 2007 from Academic Search Premier database Sobek,David Braithwaite,Alex (2005). Victim of Success: American Dominance and Terrorism. Conflict Management and Peace Science. Department of Political Science, Louisiana State University Department of Political Science, Pennsylvania State University Retrieved November 11 2007, From Academic Search Premier database

Imagery and Diction in The Fish by Elizabeth Bishop Essay -- The Fish

Imagery and Diction in The Fish by Elizabeth Bishop Elizabeth Bishop's use of imagery and diction in "The Fish" is meant to support the themes of observation and the deceptive nature of surface appearance. Throughout the course of the poem these themes lead the narrator to the important realization that aging (as represented by the fish) is not a negative process, and allows for a reverie for all life. Imagery and diction are the cornerstone methods implemented by Bishop in the symbolic nature of this poem. The title of the poem itself dictates the simplicity Bishop wishes to convey regarding the narrator's view of his catch. A fish is a creature that has preceded the creation of man on this planet. Therefore, Bishop supplies the reader with a subject that is essentially constant and eternal, like life itself. In further examination of this idea the narrator is, in relation to the fish, very young, which helps introduce the theme of deceptive appearances in conjunction with age by building off the notion that youth is ignorant and quick to judge. Bishop's initial description of the fish is meant to further develop this theme by presenting the reader with a fish that is "battered," "venerable," and "homely." Bishop compares the fish to "ancient wallpaper." Even without the word ancient preceding it, the general conception of wallpaper is something that fades into the background. One is not supposed to take much notice of it. To add to this impartial picture, the fish is brown, the signature color of dullness. "Shapes like full-blown roses stained and lost through age" (lines 14-15) further cement the image of something with little time left. Fully bloomed roses conjure the image of a flower whose petals are at t... ...tor's growing relationship with the fish. She creates, first, an image of the fish as a helpless captive and the reader is allowed to feel sorry for the fish and even pity his situation as the narrator does. The narrator's relationship with the fish then grows to one of personal regard as he engages in further study and is able to look past his initial observation. The parting image of the rainbow offers a perfect way to drive home the process of aging as a dignified and even celebratory act. Not only is it a very optimistic image of color and gaiety, but the rainbow is traditionally paired with the concept of treasure once the end of it is reached. When applied to the intended message of the poem, it may be interpreted that Bishop is implying that nearing the end of one's life is like nearing the end of the rainbow and accepting a reward for a life well lived. Imagery and Diction in The Fish by Elizabeth Bishop Essay -- The Fish Imagery and Diction in The Fish by Elizabeth Bishop Elizabeth Bishop's use of imagery and diction in "The Fish" is meant to support the themes of observation and the deceptive nature of surface appearance. Throughout the course of the poem these themes lead the narrator to the important realization that aging (as represented by the fish) is not a negative process, and allows for a reverie for all life. Imagery and diction are the cornerstone methods implemented by Bishop in the symbolic nature of this poem. The title of the poem itself dictates the simplicity Bishop wishes to convey regarding the narrator's view of his catch. A fish is a creature that has preceded the creation of man on this planet. Therefore, Bishop supplies the reader with a subject that is essentially constant and eternal, like life itself. In further examination of this idea the narrator is, in relation to the fish, very young, which helps introduce the theme of deceptive appearances in conjunction with age by building off the notion that youth is ignorant and quick to judge. Bishop's initial description of the fish is meant to further develop this theme by presenting the reader with a fish that is "battered," "venerable," and "homely." Bishop compares the fish to "ancient wallpaper." Even without the word ancient preceding it, the general conception of wallpaper is something that fades into the background. One is not supposed to take much notice of it. To add to this impartial picture, the fish is brown, the signature color of dullness. "Shapes like full-blown roses stained and lost through age" (lines 14-15) further cement the image of something with little time left. Fully bloomed roses conjure the image of a flower whose petals are at t... ...tor's growing relationship with the fish. She creates, first, an image of the fish as a helpless captive and the reader is allowed to feel sorry for the fish and even pity his situation as the narrator does. The narrator's relationship with the fish then grows to one of personal regard as he engages in further study and is able to look past his initial observation. The parting image of the rainbow offers a perfect way to drive home the process of aging as a dignified and even celebratory act. Not only is it a very optimistic image of color and gaiety, but the rainbow is traditionally paired with the concept of treasure once the end of it is reached. When applied to the intended message of the poem, it may be interpreted that Bishop is implying that nearing the end of one's life is like nearing the end of the rainbow and accepting a reward for a life well lived.

Epistemology and Knowledge Essay

Epistemology, or the study of knowledge, requires the scholar analyze the what, how, and why’s of their own knowledge. Asking these questions of themselves is essentially applying that which they have learned. There are different origins of knowledge as conceptualized by philosophers, educators, and scientists. Early philosophers defined knowledge as â€Å"justified true belief† (Cooper, pg. 23). In order for an individual to know something it must be true, he or she must believe it, and the belief in it must be justified or rationally reasonable. Later, early modern philosophers required knowledge to be proven and absolute. The scientific method was employed to provide proof for ideas and beliefs. The means by which knowledge is acquired varies. Feldman cites sources of knowledge as perception, expert testimony, memory, reasoning, and introspection (Feldman, 2003). As an educator, instructing primary age students on a daily basis, I must not only have great insight into what I believe, but I also must have insight into my student’s knowledge as well. Instructors need to know a number of things about their students, such as: Do the students have adequate prior knowledge to understand the new material being presented? Are the students sufficiently motivated to engage in the cognitive tasks required of them? Does the information fit an existing scheme of knowledge or will it require some alteration of current understanding? Understanding what my student know and at what depth they are able to apply that knowledge guides my instruction. My natural curiosity, a natural inclination for question, and a need for answers motivate the search for explanations. Knowledge and wisdom give an understanding of our position, role, and function in the world. Achterbergh and Vriens (2002) stated, â€Å"The role of knowledge in generating appropriate actions is that it serves as a background for articulating possible courses of action (articulation), for judging whether courses of action will yielded the intended result and for using this judgment in selecting among them (selection), for deciding how actions should be implemented and for actually implementing action (implementation)† (pg. 223). Knowledge enables interpretation of experiences, predictions of consequences, and provides the ability to make informed decisions. My own personal epistemology is a product of each of these views. Personal experiences have a major influence on beliefs and should be an acceptable source of knowledge but not the only consideration when acquiring knowledge. There is also a place for the scientific method which offers proven data to base knowledge. For me, knowledge is a product of reasoning (Feldman, 2003). I derive knowledge from information imported through different modes and from various sources, such as personal experiences, advice from experts, and data. These inputs of information are cognitively processed and filtered with the reference to past experience and prior knowledge to become new â€Å"justified true beliefs† (Cooper, ). Thus, knowledge acquisition is a process involving the collection of raw data or information, reasoning, and judgment making. For example, after my students have taken a test, I look at the data, think about the patterns in the data, or the lack of a pattern using prior knowledge and experiences as a filter. Finally, I decide what my next step or strategy will be. Do I need to reteach the subject because the pattern suggests that most of my students did not fully understand the skill or concept? Or do I move on to another more complex skill or concept because my students have proven themselves knowledgeable? It is in this way that I acquire knowledge and apply that knowledge to planning lessons for my students. Many of my colleagues rely solely on the scientific method to make decisions in regards to student learning. They are satisfied with looking at a spreadsheet full of data and believe that it tells the complete story in regards to students. They are also under the assumption that scores derived from a series of multiple choice tests given on a set of skills will reveal if a student has acquired the desired knowledge. Basing grades on these tests is also appropriate. I do not believe that this tells the full story of my student’s knowledge. These tests may demonstrate the ability to regurgitate this knowledge within a certain context, but out of this context this may not be true. I do, however, use this data to help inform many of my decisions, however, I do not make decisions based exclusively on this data. There must be a balance  of reasoning, using my 16 years of experiences and training, as well as raw data tells a more complete story of my student’s knowledge and abilities. I have worked for Porterville Unified School District (PUSD), in Porterville, California, my entire career. PUSD’s vision and mission statements read as follows: â€Å"PUSD students will have the skills and knowledge to be prepared for college and career and to make a positive impact in a dynamic global society. The mission of PUSD is to provide students a dynamic, engaging and effective educational experience that prepares them with the skills to be productive citizens in a global society. † As a result, it is perceived that all students will develop and demonstrate â€Å"critical thinking and problem solving skills; cultural awareness and the ability of collaborate with diverse groups; effective communication skills of listening, speaking and writing; creativity and innovation; leadership, self-management and organizational skills obtained through real world applications and community involvement; (and) the ability to navigate the global world of work and further their education (Porterville, 2012). † Porterville Unified (PUSD) has given explicit expectations for what students should know at the end of their educational career with the district, how students get to these end goals is a little less clear and left to the judgment of the teachers. There are some expectations of teachers and lessons presented to students given by the district. Many professional development hours have been spent on instructing teachers about the specific things that administrators will look for as they do brief observations of classroom instruction. The expectations include teaching explicitly to the essential standards; posting of the essential standard being taught; 80% student engagement during the lesson; display of exemplary work; higher order questioning and thinking skills. Administrators collect this data and share it with grade levels and school wide to help teachers focus on areas that are lacking. Administrator walk-throughs give a quick snap shot of the type of teaching and learning taking place during a lesson and they help to build a holistic picture of the teaching methods and resources being used (Hetzner, 2011). PUSD has placed an emphasis on the strategies needed for effective lessons and, in turn, effective student learning. As a 4th grade teacher for Porterville Unified School District, my task is to create daily lesson plans that serve to guide me as I teach my students. My first step in creating these lessons is to determine my student’s level of prior knowledge. I can accomplish this by looking at formal and informal assessments and data. Observation of this data gives me a better understanding of what my next steps with my student should be. In some cases, I need to go back and reteach skills, while in other cases I can teach my students a new skill. I have to make an informed decision as to what cognitive level I need to teach to next. Awareness of how my students are performing as well as where I need to be as far as pacing and staying on track to get through all the skills needed to be taught within the year are vital to my daily task as a 4th grade teacher. As I compare my personal epistemology with that of my district, I realize that I spend more time assessing data after the lesson has been taught while the district places more emphasis on data collected during a lesson. Both of these approaches are valuable and, in fact, the district does place value on the end result (i. e. State test scores), however, there is little action that can take place after the end of the year data is collected. PUSD has placed and emphasis on good instruction because they see it as the road to a good education, as well as, the skills and goals they have set in the mission and vision statements. Our epistemologies align in that we both rely on the research of experts. I trust, as does PUSD, that the data given by experts is valuable to our own knowledge and it should guide how I teach my students. The district also views its teachers as experts in the field and has given many freedoms in the presentation and uses of resources when teaching students. As I reflect on my school districts focus as compared to me I realize that even though our epistemologies are not exactly aligned we are aligned in our focus of the students. Students come first. That means I will use whichever strategies I need to in order to create effective student learning. Reviewing test scores and planning lessons are vital to student learning, however, I have been so centered on what I am teaching that my students have not been engaged as well as they could be and thus have not learned the subject matters to their full potential. Also, although pacing is important, it should not be of top priority. Top priority should be assessing my students during the lesson and changing strategies, or even the skills being taught, if my students are not engaged. There is no point in plowing through a lesson if the majority of my students are not listening to what is being taught. This new insight will definitely help to drive my instruction and will help make me a more effective teacher. References: Achterbergh,J. , Vriens, D. (May-June 2002). Managing viable knowledge. â€Å"Systems Research and Behavioral Science. † V19i3p223 (19). Cooper, D. E. (Ed. ). (1999). Epistemology: The classic readings. Malden, MA: Blackwell. Feldman R. (2003). Epistemology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hetzner, Amy, 2011. Walk-throughs give school administrators firsthand view of staff in action. JSOnline: Milwaukee, Wisconsin Journal Sentinel. May 14, 2011. Retrieved on November 20, 2012 from: http://www. jsonline. com/news/education/121843078. html Porterville Unified School District, 2012 . PUSD: Vision and mission statements. Retrieved on November 20, 2012 from: http://dnn. portervilleschools. org/dotnetnuke/District/VisionMission. aspx.

The Main Arguments for and Against Hunting

Legitimate arguments abound for and against hunting for the control of the population of deer and other â€Å"nuisance† wildlife; or for sustenance for people who kill animals so they can eat them. For many people, the issue is complex, particularly for those who are (and intend to remain) meat-eaters. After reading the arguments pro and con, you may find yourself leaning strongly to one side—or you may find that youre still on the fence. What Is Meant by Hunting? Most people who argue in favor of hunting are not arguing in favor of trophy hunting, the practice of killing an animal simply to show off its head and pelt. Trophy hunting is, in fact, abhorred by the majority of the public. Often, the animal being hunted is a rare or endangered animal, but even trophy hunting for wolves, moose,  and  bears  is unpalatable to many people.   The killing of wild animals for food is a different story. Though it was, at one time, a way of life so people could survive, today, hunting is a controversial issue because it is frequently regarded as a recreational activity. Many people are concerned about safety issues, and society’s attitudes towards animals are changing. Some hunters oppose certain practices they consider unethical, such as baiting, canned hunting (in fenced areas), and hunting of stocked animals. At the heart of the non-trophy hunting debate in the United States is one  species: white-tailed deer. In many areas in the U.S., white-tailed deer flourish because of the lack of natural predators and the abundance of deer-friendly habitat. As pockets of green space shrink and disappear in our suburbs, the species has become the center of the debate over hunting, and many who consider themselves neither hunters nor  animal activists  find themselves drawn into the debate. The debate centers on practical and ethical issues including deer management, human/deer conflicts, non-lethal solutions, and safety. Arguments in Favor of Hunting Hunting proponents argue that hunting is safe, effective, necessary, and inexpensive to taxpayers.The injury rate for hunting is lower than that of some other forms of physical recreation, such as football and bicycling.Proponents argue that hunting is an effective form of deer management because it will remove a number of individual deer from a population and prevent those individuals from reproducing.Since natural deer predators have been eliminated in many areas, hunters argue that hunting is necessary to perform the function of wolves or cougars in keeping the deer population in check.Hunting proponents also argue that reducing the deer population will reduce human/deer conflicts, such as car/deer collisions,  Lyme disease, and landscaping damage.Compared to sharpshooters and immunocontraception, hunting is inexpensive to taxpayers because hunters will kill the deer for free. Also, hunting permits are sold by state wildlife management agencies, which are partially or fully supp orted by the sales of permits.Hunters argue that killing the deer is better than letting them starve to death.Hunters argue that hunting is a tradition, a ritual or a bonding experience.Regarding ethics, hunting proponents argue that killing a deer for food cannot be worse than killing a cow or a chicken. Furthermore, unlike the cow or the chicken, the deer lived a free and wild life before being killed and had a chance to escape.Hunters also argue that killing a number of deer benefits the ecosystem as a whole. Arguments Against Hunting Hunting opponents argue that hunting is unsafe, ineffective, unnecessary, and unfair to taxpayers.Opponents point out that compared to other forms of recreation, hunting injuries are far more likely to be fatalities. Approximately 100 people die in  hunting accidents  in the US every year, and unlike other forms of recreation, hunting endangers the entire community and not just the willing participants.Opponents also argue that hunting is ineffective for solving human/deer conflicts. Studies show that car/deer collisions increase during hunting season because hunters frighten the deer out of the woods and onto roads.Contrary to popular belief, hunting  does not address Lyme disease  because the ticks are usually spread to grassy areas where humans find them by mice, not deer. In fact, hunters who dress deer or squirrels have a higher risk of tick bites.And as long as suburban landscaping includes deer-preferred plants such as tulips and rhododendrons, that landscaping will at tract hungry deer, no matter  how many deer  there are.It may also be the case that hunting to reduce the number of deer is less effective than contraception. Hunting is ineffective because state wildlife management agencies intentionally keep the deer population high, for hunters.Lands managed for hunting are sometimes purchased and maintained with tax dollars, even though 95% of Americans do not hunt.Hunters out for trophies, such as elk and deer with large racks, are killing the strongest and healthiest of the species, not the weak and starving they claim to be putting out of their misery. Killing the stronger members of the species leaves a permanent consequence for the species as a whole. Resolution The hunting debate may never be resolved. The two sides will continue to debate safety, effectiveness, and cost, but will probably never agree on the ethics of killing wild animals for food or recreation.